Evidence matrix
These scores describe different evidence domains. A strong mechanism cannot compensate for missing human outcomes, and a useful clinical effect need not imply slower biological ageing.
What has been shown in humans?
Trials and reviews support improved training capacity and, when combined with resistance exercise, modest improvements in strength or lean mass in many populations. Cognitive findings are promising but less consistent and may be more apparent in older adults, vegetarians or people under sleep or metabolic stress.
What remains uncertain?
The magnitude of benefit in sedentary people, the long-term effect on disability or falls, and the populations most likely to gain cognitive benefit remain uncertain.
Doses used in research
Safety and interpretation
- Creatine monohydrate is one of the better-studied supplements and is generally well tolerated in healthy adults at conventional study doses.
- Serum creatinine can rise because creatine is converted to creatinine; interpretation of kidney tests may therefore require clinical context.
- Existing kidney disease, pregnancy or complex medication use warrants individual medical advice.
Primary sources and evidence reviews
Broad evidence review of efficacy, safety and common claims. The paper reports extensive author links to the creatine industry, which should be considered alongside the evidence.
Systematic review and meta-analysis of cognitive outcomes.
Editorial note
This dossier was last reviewed on 13 July 2026. Ratings can change when larger trials, adverse-event data or better systematic reviews appear. Corrections should alter the page rather than being buried in a social-media thread.